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Foreword It is possible that on a list of all the topics of central importance to our well being and yet have been subjected to a low amount of scholarly research security would appear near the top. Indeed, there have been few good attempts to develop the science of security, not because there are not good scientists interested in security, it is more that by and large they have written different types of books. This is why this text is important. It is written by two leading researchers, indeed household names in security research, who are able to speak the language of both 'science' and 'security'. Moreover, this text is written to engage. It starts with a critique of the concept of security. Most books of this kind start that way, but often progress little more than reminding us that the word 'security' has several meanings and in some languages is interpreted as the same as 'safety'. Clifton Smith and David Brooks take us far beyond that, the body of knowledge of security is defined and critiqued and we are invited to understand how the current state of security knowledge relates to the requirements of a discipline (to which it surely aspires). I hope all students – and for that matter practitioners too - will take a special interest in their discussion of the scientific method. This is fundamental to fully understanding how security as a subject needs to evolve and develop. Personally I would not mind if it became a requirement, and at the very least an expectation, that all students of security management should read at least the first chapter, but they be would be wise if they read the whole text. In so doing they will be able to learn how different theories apply to security, including management theories, systems theories, and how these inform the practice of security and relate to planning, metrics, ethics, and cost benefits to highlight just some examples that practitioner need to engage with. The authors offer us ten key principles which they present as guides to practice. Not everyone will view these as complete but they have set a framework for others to critique, I am sure they hope, as we all should, that future researchers will engage with that task. Indeed, in an array of areas, for example, risk management, business continuity management, facilities management, routine activities theory, Defence in Depth and Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, concepts are examined and shown how they can and do relate to security not from the perspective of a criminologist, as so often is the case, but rather from the viewpoint of a scientist. Their discussion of the role of technology offers a benchmark against which the progress of security can be measured in the years ahead, and they devote a chapter to highlight the ways in which they believe technology is likely to develop and security is likely to change. And throughout the authors keep their audience engaged with important insights and critiques and never lose sight of their goal of providing a better understanding of what security is and how it functions, or should function. The inclusion of a whole chapter on knowledge management is further testament to that. The authors are surely right in presenting security as an emerging discipline, and right too in suggesting that properly directed it has a bright future which. Crucially, this is the important point, in developing better theories it provides a more solid foundation for informing and guiding security work and moving the world of security practice from its current state of 'chaos' to a 'recognised profession'. There book is likely to become a major influence in guiding us in the right direction, I hope it will be heeded, it needs to be. Professor Martin Gill September 2012

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Acknowledgments

We wish to express our gratitude to a

number of people and organizations who

have assisted us by thought and deed over

the duration of the planning, development,

and production of this book.

• Mr. Jeffery Corkill, who was always

willing and able to provide us with his

detailed knowledge of intelligence and

input into the future of security.

• Mr. Chris Cubbage from MySecurity, who

provided valuable comment and was

always most optimistic about the validity

of this book.

• Professor Martin Gill from Perpetuity

Research for his contribution of support in

the Foreword of this book.

• Professor Rick Sarre of the University of

South Australia for providing valuable

feedback on portions of the book.

• Mr. Bruce Braes for being a sounding

board for security risk management,

business continuity, and his considerable

research into organizational resilience.

• Pam Chester, our acquisition editor, who

acknowledged the value of our idea in

writing this book, and her very supportive

staff.

• To the (too few) academics striving to

elevate this unique area of security into a

true discipline.

• Finally, to the progressive security

practitioners who strive to improve their

industry for those following behind.

ix

Intentionally left as blank

About the Authors

Professor Clifton L. Smith, PhD,

MAppSc (Phys)

Dr. Clifton Smith is currently an honorary

professor at the Electron Science Research

Institute at Edith Cowan University (ECU),

and a visiting professor at the Imaging

Group at Nottingham Trent University

(NTU). He initiated the establishment of the

Australian Institute of Security and Applied

Technology at ECU in 1987, and he developed

research profiles in security imaging, biomet-

ric imaging, ballistics identification, infrared

sensing, and security education. Over the

duration of a decade, Clifton developed the

first bachelor of science (security) program

in Australia, a BSc (security) honors degree,

a masters of science (security science) re-

search degree, and a doctor of philosophy

(security science) research degree. In 2004,

Professor Smith established the Security Sys-

tems Research and Test Laboratory at ECU

for the design and testing of security technol-

ogy. The security systems evaluated and

tested included intelligent CCTV and access

control through biometric systems. In 2005,

Professor Smith developed the masters of

security management coursework degree,

which is now delivered online to all

continents. Dr. Smith retired from ECU in

2006, and continues to supervise PhD stu-

dents at ECU and NTU in security-related

topics.

Dr. David J. Brooks, PhD, MSc

(Security Science), BSc (Security),

ADipEng (Electronics)

Dave has a 33-year security career having

served in the U.K. Royal Air Force, held

positions in the Australian Department of De-

fence, as an academic at Edith Cowan Univer-

sity (ECU), with private security consultancies,

and currently for WorleyParsons as a project

manager of security. During his career, Dave

has worked in all parts of the security industry

gaining insight that such experience provides.

Dave maintains a role as a research leader

within the Security Research Institute at

ECU, specializing in security knowledge, se-

curity risk management, technology evalua-

tion, and security decay. He is the academic

chair and editor of ECU's annual Security

and Intelligence Conference and is on the edi-

torial committee of the Security Journal. Dave

has a PhD in security risk management, a mas-

ters by research on psychometric risk, and a

bachelor of science (security).

xi

Intentionally left as blank

Foreword

It is possible that on a list of all the topics

of central importance to our well-being and

yet have been subjected to a low amount of

scholarly research, security would appear

near the top. Indeed, there have been few

good attempts to develop the science of secu-

rity, not because there are not good scientists

interested in security, but it is more that

by and large they have written different

types of books. This is why this text is impor-

tant. It is written by two leading researchers,

indeed household names in security re-

search, who are able to speak the language

of both science and security.

Moreover, this text is written to engage. It

starts with a critique of the concept of security.

Most books of this kind start that way, but

often progress little more than reminding us

that the word "security" hasseveral meanings

and in some languages is interpreted as the

same as "safety." Clifton Smith and David

Brooks take us far beyond that—the body of

knowledgeof security is defined and critiqued

and we are invited to understand how the

current state of security knowledge relates to

the requirements of a discipline (to which it

surely aspires). I hope all students—and for

that matter, practitioners too—will take a spe-

cial interest in their discussion of the scientific

method. This is fundamental to fully under-

standing how security as a subject needs to

evolve and develop. Personally, I would not

mind if it became a requirement, and at the

very least an expectation, that all students of

security management should read at least

the first chapter, but they would be wise if

they read the whole text.

In so doing, they will be able to learn how

different theories apply to security, includ-

ing management theories and systems theo-

ries, and how these inform the practice of

security and relate to planning, metrics,

ethics, and cost benefits, to highlight just some

examples that practitioners need to engage

with. The authors offer us 10 key principles

that they present as guides to practice. Not

everyone will view these as complete, but

they have set a framework for others to cri-

tique. I am sure the authors hope, as we all

should, that future researchers will engage

with that task.

Indeed, in an array of areas, for example,

risk management, business continuity man-

agement, facilities management, routine ac-

tivities theory, defense-in-depth, and crime

prevention through environmental design,

concepts are examined and shown how they

can and do relate to security not from the per-

spective of a criminologist, as so often is the

case, but rather from the viewpoint of a sci-

entist. Their discussion of the role of technol-

ogy offers a benchmark against which the

progress of security can be measured in the

years ahead, and they devote a chapter to

highlight the ways in which they believe

technology is likely to develop and security

is likely to change. Throughout, the authors

keep their audience engaged with important

insights and critiques and never lose sight of

their goal of providing a better understand-

ing of what security is and how it functions,

or should function. The inclusion of a whole

chapter on knowledge management is fur-

ther testament to that.

xiii

The authors are surely right in presenting

security as an emerging discipline, and right

too in suggesting that properly directed, it

has a bright future. Crucially, this is the

important point: developing better theo-

ries provides a more solid foundation for

informing and guiding security work and

moving the world of security practice from

its current state of "chaos" to a recognized

profession. This book is likely to become a

major influence in guiding us in the right

direction—I hope it will be heeded, it needs

to be.

Martin Gill

xiv FOREWORD

Preface

The writing of this book has been a true ad-

venture, as we believe that we have made a

quantum step in the understanding of the de-

sign, application, operations, and education

of security by having a theoretical foundation

for our security content. We consider that a

theoretical foundation to the understanding

and application of security at the national

and commercial levels will enhance the

future development of the discipline.

Professional development is an essential

component of professional employment, as

it allows individuals to maintain currency

in their chosen career field. A characteristic

of professional development is that it is both

ongoing and directed—that is, to maintain

the confidence of the community in the

knowledge and skills base of a profession,

an individual must continue to strive to be

at the leading edge of knowledge in his or

her chosen discipline.

The security industry has become an inte-

gral part of business enterprise and human

activities, wherever businesses engage in

wealth-creating activities and people congre-

gate into groups for leisure or living. The

functional aspects of security are necessary

to ensure protection and safety of individuals

and assets. The security of persons, assets,

and information remains the responsibility

of government, large organizations, and the

community. At best, the study of security

can only be considered as an emerging disci-

pline, and in some minds still a component of

criminology. However, over the past decade

sufficient new knowledge in the domain of as-

set protection has been published that there is

a case for the claim of security to be consid-

ered as a distinction and discrete body of

knowledge.

The purpose of this book is to seek regu-

larity and internal consistency within the

knowledge domain of security, and to dem-

onstrate the underlying principles applied

in the understanding of security to those of

the scientific method. That is, much of the

knowledge domain of security can be

discussed in terms of theory, either as newly

developed paradigms for asset protection

or as well-established theories within other

disciplines. Thus, by borrowing theories

from other disciplines, it may be possible

to enhance the understanding and therefore

development of the emerging discipline of

security science.

Using theories to apply methods of pro-

tection allows a degree of prediction and

provides a robust test for the discipline.

Nevertheless, for security and, in particular,

the security industry to reach such a state

requires further professionalization at many

levels. To be considered a profession re-

quires defined concepts that form a body of

knowledge that has structure. Knowledge

is being defined within the broader context

of security; however, the relevance and rela-

tionship of such knowledge has to be deter-

mined. If security is an emerging discipline,

what concepts are more related to security

than others and how do they relate to the

knowledge structure? An understanding of

how security knowledge is structured, and

its interrelationship and interdependencies,

are an important element in achieving

xv

regularity and consistency. Ultimately, a

structure of security knowledge may be

formed that supports a discipline of security

science.

The principal themes of this book are

according to our philosophy of the structure

of knowledge in the discipline of security

science, and, as such, will influence the

arguments and discussions on the future di-

rections in the study of the protection of

assets. These themes of the book include an

understanding of the concept and manage-

ment of security, together with security risk

and the management of security risk. Thus,

by developing a theoretical context for these

principal themes of the knowledge base, it

is possible to build a knowledge structure

that can be applied to security aspects

that can be operationalized to fulfill the func-

tion of protecting an organization's assets.

According to these themes, the understand-

ing of the ideas of asset protection has been

strongly influenced by Bloom's taxonomy,

where a hierarchy of understanding of con-

cepts and principles has been presented to

ensure that advanced-level thinking is ap-

plied to the preservation of well-being and

safety.

This book presents a case for the future di-

rection in the development of security science

through the understanding of the knowledge

associated with asset protection and the pro-

cesses to achieve asset protection. On the con-

cept of security, Chapter 1 discusses the

notion of asset protection according to socio-

logical traits, and the perceptions of the func-

tions of security. A description of the

scientific method is presented to establish

the basis for theories of security. Chapter 2

discusses the principles of security manage-

ment within the concept of resilience applied

to asset protection. The principles of risk, se-

curity risk, and security risk management are

presented and applied in Chapter 3. The so-

cial and cultural theories associated with

the risk management process are considered

to evaluate the theories that underlie decision

making within security risk management.

Chapter 4 compares and contrasts the secu-

rity strategies that may be used to improve

the built environment, considering such tech-

niques as physical measures, crime preven-

tion through environmental design, lighting

and the landscape, and the interrelationship

between facilities and security.

Chapter 5 presents the need for physical se-

curity for the protection of assets, and con-

siders the defense-in-depth principle as an

important approach. The applications of the

routine activity theory through defense-in-

depth and crime prevention through environ-

mental design are appropriate applications in

security. The applications of critical path anal-

ysis and universal element conceptual map-

ping in Chapter 6 are suitable strategies for

assessing physical attacks on facilities. Also

the types and functions of detection systems

are discussed, with understanding of the

possibility of being defeated. Furthermore,

Chapter 7 describes the principles of access

control with an emphasis on biometric identi-

fication. The modes of attack on biometric sys-

tems are considered in order that these might

be prevented. Chapter 8 discusses knowledge

management as strategies and practices in an

organization to consolidate the corporate un-

derstandingofitsinformation.Theimportance

of security intelligence applied to the security

management plan is presented, together with

some discussion on espionage and insider

security threats. The importance of the four

stages of business continuity management

in the context of a crisis is presented in

Chapter 9 . Finally, Chapter 10 discusses the

future of the concept of security in short-, me-

dium-, and long-term predictions for its future

directions and outcomes.

The foundation for the continued develop-

ment of formal knowledge of security and its

applications for the protection of assets in the

xvi PREFACE

national and international contexts will de-

pend on understanding the principles and

concepts of the emerging discipline of security

science. A theory-driven learning program at

the undergraduate and graduate levels of

study will ensure that the formal understand-

ing of security will prevail. The knowledge

base for the emerging discipline of security

will be enhanced by ongoing research, both

in the fundamental context of theory

development and the applied context such as

knowledge management and business conti-

nuity management. Such emergence will pro-

vide the foundation for the formal discipline

of security science, providing organizational

security with an element in becoming a

profession.

Clifton L. Smith & David J. Brooks

September, 2012

xvii PREFACE

Intentionally left as blank

CHAPTER

1

Concept of Security

OBJECTIVES

• Discuss what constitutes a traditional

approach to the nature of security.

• Critique the scientific method and

engineering design process for the study

of security science.

• Examine the diverse and interrelated

disciplines and practice domains of security.

• Evaluate theories or concepts that provide

definitions of security.

• Appraise the need to provide context when

defining the concept of security.

• Defend a framework that supports a

contextual definition of security science.

INTRODUCTION

The traditional academic disciplines have evolved and developed over centuries to reach

their current state of refinement. These traditional disciplines, such as astronomy, physics,

mathematics, medicine, and, more recently, biology and environmental science, exhibit a

set of characteristics by which each can be designated as a discipline. Some of the character-

istics of a discipline would include:

1. Body of knowledge: A well-defined and inclusive body of knowledge.

2. Structure of knowledge: An internal structure of the knowledge, achieved through

internal relationships between concepts so that consistency and logic prevail.

3. Concepts and principles: The building blocks of the knowledge of a discipline are

concepts, and the relationships between concepts are governed by principles.

4. Theories: Theories are predictive in function and provide the ultimate test for a

discipline, as outcomes can be predicted.

The knowledge domain of security has yet to achieve the status of being designated an ac-

ademic discipline, as it lacks validity in the characteristics of the traditional disciplines. How-

ever, the emerging security science discipline will aspire to these characteristics with future

1 Security Science – The Theory and Practice of Security

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394436-8.00001-1

#2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

ongoing research applied to the characteristics of a discipline, to provide the context for

knowledge, structure, principles, and predictive theories.

Security lacks definition and, therefore, lacks structured knowledge. In addition, security is

diverse, cross-disciplined, and without a defined or specified knowledge or skill structure

(Hesse and Smith, 2001). Nevertheless, this should not lead to a conclusion that security does

not contain a definable knowledge structure. The diversity and cross-disciplined nature of se-

curity will evolve as the discipline becomes more professional, concepts are developed and de-

fined, and tertiary education programs increase. Professional development is an essential

component of professional employment, as it allows the individual to maintain currency in their

chosen career. Thus, professional diversity has to be bounded by structured knowledge con-

cepts. A characteristic of professional development is that it isboth ongoing and directed—that

is, to maintainthe confidence of the community in the knowledge and skills base of a profession,

you must continue to strive to be at the leading edge of knowledge in your chosen discipline.

The foundation for the continued development of formal knowledge of security and its

applications for the protection of assets in the national and international contexts will depend

on an understanding of the principles and concepts of the emerging discipline of security.

Research and development in the structure of the discipline of security is crucial for the pro-

fessional application of a new generation of conceptual principles of security for the protec-

tion of assets. As Fischer et al. (2008, p. 482) suggested, the future of security is very positive

considering the growth indicated in the discipline.

Security lacks characteristics of a discipline, with a defined and inclusive definition, as the

concept of security is diverse and multidimensional. Nevertheless, security can be defined

given context. Therefore, this chapter introduces the concept of security and provides defini-

tion through context and the presentation of supporting theories, models, and frameworks.

Thus, a definition goes some way in achieving such understanding as to why security is

multidimensional in nature through a staged approach, commencing from security of the

individual to security of national and international systems. Security is a human characteristic

that is objective, perceived, expected, and demanded by people in many different forms. It is

perhaps one concept that over many decades has not changed in its original use; rather, it has

become more broadly used to encompass greater and more diverse meaning.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN SUPPORT OF SECURITY SCIENCE

The development of the knowledge base in security science depends on its advancement as

a discipline, and the extent of interaction between academia and professional practitioners of

the security industry. The knowledge base for the emerging discipline of security will be en-

hanced by ongoing research both in the fundamental context of theory development and the

applied context of asset protection. It is necessary for government, academia, and the com-

mercial security industry to contribute to this knowledge base.

The stages in the development of a scientific discipline depend on the application of the

scientific method to the knowledge base under consideration. The scientific method is a pro-

cess for experimentation to seek cause-and-effect relationships between observable factors in

the information of data gathered. For example, does the presence of a person in an e-field

detector distort the field so that intrusion can be registered? From a social perspective, do

21. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

people use utility theory when accessing security risk or do they take a heuristic approach?

Whether in the hard or soft sciences, the scientific method seeks the cause-and-effect relation-

ship by controlling the variables in the experimentation of the phenomenon.

A definite feature of a science is that there are a set of procedures that demonstrate how

outcomes are produced, and these procedures are sufficiently detailed so that others may rep-

licate the process to verify or refute the outcomes. The scientific method is a process of inquiry

that regards itself as fallible, and as a result purposely tests itself and criticizes its outcomes to

correct and improve itself. Although there are several versions of the scientific method, a basic

approach involves a four-stage model to develop knowledge of a natural phenomenon:

1. Gather data by measuring or recording the observations of the phenomenon.

2. Construct an idea of how the phenomenon operates or functions in the form of a

hypothesis.

3. Test or evaluate the idea or hypothesis by designing an experiment to show the

operation or function of the phenomenon.

4. Analyze the results of the experiment to see if the hypothesis is true or false; if it is

true, then the idea may be formalized as a theory.

Scientific Method

The model of the scientific method can be expanded with preplanning for background

research or information seeking before the hypothesis testing stage, and the model can be ex-

tended with an outcomes communication or reporting stage after the analysis to disseminate

findings to practitioners and interested people (Figure 1.1 ). The strength of the scientific

method is that a formalized process is applied to the problem, and an outcome will either

be gained or rejected. A feature of the scientific method is that the hypothesis of the problem

can be tested time after time, and if the hypothesis continues to be accepted then it is accepted

as knowledge. However, if the hypothesis is rejected once, then the model will not be ac-

cepted. The strength of the scientific method is that anyone can conduct the hypothesis testing

for the problem, and thus establish the validity of the model.

The regularization of observations of a phenomenon can eventually be presented as a the-

ory, provided the phenomenon is scrutinized many times from a variety of viewpoints and

with the same outcomes for each experiment. Figure 1.1 shows that if the result of hypothesis

testing is false or partially true, then a modified hypothesis must be tested. When consistency

of testing the hypothesis is obtained, then the idea becomes a theory and provides a coherent

set of propositions that explain a class of phenomena. The theory can be considered as a

framework to explain further observations, from which predictions can be made.

The strength of the scientific method is that it is unprejudiced—that is, it is not necessary to

believe the results or outcomes of a particular researcher, as one can replicate the experiment

and determine whether the results are true or false. The outcomes of the hypothesis testing do

not depend on a particular experimenter, so that faith or belief does not play any part in the

logical proof or material evidence on whether a scientific idea or theory is adopted or

discarded. Thus, a theory is accepted, not based on the proponent, but rather on the quality

of the results obtained through observations or experiments. Results obtained through the

process of the scientific method are repeatable and reproducible.

3 SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN SUPPORT OF SECURITY SCIENCE

An important characteristic of a scientific theory or hypothesis is that it must be falsifiable.

That is, if any single experiment relevant to the hypothesis is shown to be negative or untrue,

the hypothesis must be rejected. Thus, theories cannot be proven when the hypotheses are

tested, but only rejected when a negative test results from an experiment. The philosopher

Wittgenstein (1953) in his analyses of experimentation claimed that "there is no independent

criterion of correctness," so that the scientific method must continue to test the validity of its

knowledge.

In a tested scientific hypothesis, a prediction is a rigorous, often quantitative, statement

forecasting new outcomes under specific conditions of the idea being considered. The scien-

tific method is formulated on testing assertions that are logical consequences of scientific

theories, developed through repeatable experiments or observational studies of a pheno-

menon. Thus, a scientific theory of which the assertions are contradicted by observations and

evidence will be rejected. The ability of an idea or hypothesis to predict further outcomes

is a strength of the scientific method in its regularization of information from observation

of experiment. Therefore, the power of the scientific method is to be found in the ability to

predict further outcomes from the original hypothesis of the phenomenon. This important

outcome of prediction from the scientific method is a strong indicator of validity of the pro-

cess, as logical predictions of an idea can then also be hypothesis tested for acceptance or

Pose Question?

Review

background of

issue

Develop

hypothesis

Test

Hypothesis

True False or

partially true

Report findings

Reflect and

adjust

FIGURE 1.1 Stages of the scientific method

showing the hypothesis testing of an idea.

41. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

rejection. The philosopher Karl Popper (1963) sought to show that challenges to the scientific

method are based on a series of misconceptions about the nature of science, and about the

relationship between scientific laws and scientific prediction.

The application of the scientific method to ideas in natural phenomena has scientific

researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of the phenomena. Thus, they are able

to design experimental studies to test these hypotheses and make predictions that can be

derived from the hypotheses. The process must be repeatable, to safeguard against mistakes,

confusion, or prejudice by a particular experimenter. Theories that embrace wider domains of

knowledge from similar fields of study may coalesce several or many independently derived

hypotheses together in a coherent supportive knowledge structure. These knowledge struc-

tures are the foundations for the development of an academic discipline and are particularly

relevant to security science.

The scientific method is an enduring cycle that constantly develops more accurate and

comprehensive methods and models. For example, when Einstein developed the special

and general theories of relativity, he did not refute or discount Newton's principia, which

was the foundation for Newtonian mechanics in physics. Newtonian physics was correct

in its day and was true for the observations in nature. But Newton's equations could not cope

with the enormity of mass in the universe, the tininess of particles in the atom, and the huge

speeds of objects in space, which became observable data in the twentieth century. So

Einstein's theories are extensions and refinements of Newton's theories, and therefore

increase our confidence in Newton's ideas of the natural world.

Engineering Design Process

The application of the scientific method has evolved over centuries, but interestingly, the

engineering design process has more recently been developed to service the needs of the

engineer who creates new products or processes. For engineers, the engineering design

process is a set of phases or actions that establishes a need for a product, system, or environ-

ment. Table 1.1 shows the methodology of the engineering design process, and also the

correspondence with the scientific method.

TABLE 1.1 Scientific Method versus Engineering Design Process

Scientific Method Engineering Design Process

State a question or problem Define a problem or need

Gather background information Gather background information

Formulate hypothesis; identify variables Establish design statement or criteria

Design experiment, establish procedure(s) Prepare preliminary designs

Test hypothesis by doing an experiment Build and test a prototype(s)

Analyze results and draw conclusions Verify, test, and redesign as necessary

Present results Present results

5 SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN SUPPORT OF SECURITY SCIENCE

The engineering design process defines the problem by seeking responses to the following

questions as a reason to engage in the development of a product, system, or environment:

1. What is the problem or need?

2. Who has the problem or need?

3. Why is the problem important to solve?

The engineering design process rarely proceeds in a linear manner through stages, but

rather moves back and forth while converging to a solution. Thus, feedback loops in the logic

of the design process are an important characteristic of the procedure. Table 1.1 demonstrates

that similar logic is presented in each of the methodologies for science and engineering. The

rigor of both of the processes is the strengths of the approaches for testable outcomes. While

the scientific method modifies hypotheses that do not test positive and are hence rejected, the

engineering design process features iterations between stages to achieve design outcomes

that are both logical and sustainable.

Security science will use both scientific and engineering design methods. However, due to

the applied nature of security science, it would be expected that the engineering design

method is equally relevant in developing the discipline. Such applied research allows

directed evaluation of real problems within the social environment rather than theoretical

research, better supporting the security industry.

Security science is an emerging discipline that is developing its own theories for the struc-

ture of knowledge within the context of its knowledge domain. Although some theories in

security science are discipline specific, generally current theories are adapted from other

disciplines and knowledge domains for the security context, such as criminology, psychol-

ogy, and engineering, where relatively strong theoretical contexts have been developed.

However, security science is in its formative phase, and will evolve over the next decade into

an accepted science. Thus, evolution will be based on rigor and logical application through

science and technology theory and principle. The emergence of security science as an

accepted discipline will herald the advancement of security as a profession.

DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF SECURITY

To varying degrees, we all have a concern for our well-being. These concerns extend to our

family, friends, colleagues, the environment, and the world we occupy. The need to address

these concerns is generally labeled security. The concept of security takes numerous forms

within the wide spectrum of society. As Zedner (2009, p. 22) suggests, security is a powerful

term that has a strong emotional appeal arising from its capacity to bear multiple meanings

simultaneously. Furthermore, the rhetorical allure of security has seen it attach to a long line

of neologisms (global security, international security, cooperative security, and human secu-

rity) that deliberately use the term to mobilize political support and economic recourse.

Security is multidimensional in both concept and application; however, we can define se-

curity and understand its nature when we consider it from a contextual perspective. For ex-

ample, security is comprehensible when we consider a lock and key, but less so when we

consider the fight on terrorism. The meaning of security can be unbounded, for example,

in the past decade the increasing world exposure to terror attacks has raised social concern

61. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

over the ability of nation-states to protect its citizens. When we use the term security without

context, it can and does mean many things to many people.

Security may be considered assured freedom from poverty or want; precautions taken to

ensure against theft or espionage; or a person or thing that secures or guarantees (Angus and

Roberston, 1992). Furthermore, Fischer et al. consider that security "implies a stable, rela-

tively predictable environment in which an individual or group may pursue its ends without

disruption or harm and without fear of such disturbance or injury" (2008, p. 31). A tradi-

tional definition of security may be the provision of private services in the protection of

people, information, and assets for individual safety or community wellness. In addition,

private or commercial security may be considered the provision of paid services in

preventing undesirable, unauthorized, or detrimental loss to an organization's assets

(Post and Kingsbury, 1991).

Nevertheless, security has to be expanded to consider national security and the defense of a

nation-state through armed force or the use of such force to control its citizens. Security may

also imply public policing by state-employed public servants. Still others consider security as

crime prevention, secure technology, risk management, or loss prevention (Brooks, 2009 ). The

Protection of Assets Manual (Knote, 2004, pp. 1–2) states that the title was chosen because the

term security is too narrow a definition, whereas the title of protection of assets better describes

the function of security; however, it is argued that the reverse holds greater validity. Asset

protection does better define the function of a part of security, but it is only one part of many.

Security may be considered to be all of these statements; however, such diversity results in

a society that has no clear understanding of security, with a divergence of interests from many

stakeholders (Manunta, 1999 ). As ASIS International stated, "every time we think we've got

the definition of the security field nailed, somebody ... starts taking some of the nails away"

(2003, p. 10). Security has to have a shared definition among the many disciplines that incor-

porate and contribute to security. However, security does present rather different meanings

to different people (Davidson, 2005 ), given time, place, and context.

As shown in Table 1.2 , the nature of security has to be considered. Security may be

extensions—namely, security of international systems, nation-states, and groups and indivi-

duals (Rothschild, 1995 ). In addition, the aspect of security can be an objective concept

(e.g., a lock and key), subjective and driven by our perceptions (e.g., the installation of public

CCTV to make a community feel safer), or symbolic (e.g., aviation security restricting

passengers taking excessive liquids airside). We need to consider security from the individual

to international, as well as the objective, subjective, and symbolic aspects.

TABLE 1.2 Nature of Security

Security Extensions Security Aspects

Security of individuals Objective

Security of groups Subjective

Security of nation-states Symbolic

Security of international systems

7 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF SECURITY

SECURITY OF INDIVIDUALS

Security of individuals can be discussed within the context of a number of theories. These

theories include Maslow's hierarchy of human needs (1943), the related but distinct concepts

of security and safety, and, finally, the risk effect. Risk has always been closely related to the

concept of security, but it is only in recent times that the management of risk has played such a

significant role in applied security.

Hierarchy of Human Needs

In 1943 Maslow proposed the theory of hierarchy of human needs, ranking an individual's

motivational needs within a priority schema. The theory is often presented as a triangle

(Figure 1.2 ), with five successive stages. Maslow integrated two distinct groupings, being de-

ficiency of needs and growth needs. Deficiencies at each stage must be satisfied by the indi-

vidual before they can proceed to the following level, resulting in the higher needs only being

considered once the lower or more basic needs are satisfied. Once these lower needs are

achieved, creativity, self-fulfillment, and realization of one's potential may be reached. How-

ever, if lower-level needs are no longer being achieved, the person will temporally refocus on

such lower needs and not regress to the lower levels.

Physiological needs are concerned with human survival—breathing, homeostasis, water,

sleep, food, and excretion. Once these physical needs are satisfied, safety needs are consi-

dered. The safety level is often presented as safety and security , with an individual's needs

for personal security and extending to aspects such as order and control, financial security,

job security, health, and well-being.

Once physiological and safety needs are reached, the need of love and belonging fol-

lows. This third stage involves emotional-based relationships and a sense of belonging,

such as friendship, family, affiliation, intimacy, and love. The next level, esteem, considers

an individual's need to achieve, seek, and gain peer approval and recognition, gain self-

value, and respect others. Finally, the highest level is actualization, where one gains

self-fulfillment, understanding, and realizes one's potential. Such actualization leads to

creativity, morality, spontaneity, problem solving, and acceptance of others (Huitt, 2004;

Maslow, 1943).

Actualization

Esteem

Love/belonging

Safety/security

Physiological

FIGURE 1.2 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs.

81. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

As Maslow's hierarchy of human needs demonstrates, safety and security is a primary

need for the individual. Without feeling safe and secure, our ability to cooperate as a cohort

and achieve creativity is restricted. Thus, such an understanding leads to the conclusion that

security should be an important focus within an organization, allowing employees to be as

efficient as possible. As Huitt (2004) states, Maslow's—and more recent research in this

area—is important for anyone concerned with developing and using the human potential.

Safety versus Security

Safety is freedom from danger or risk of injury, which reflects a past definition of security.

Notwithstanding Maslow's view on the relationship of safety and security, these two con-

cepts are distinct from each other. They do have a degree of relationship, but should be

considered as unique concepts. Safety focuses on hazards that tend to suggest an accident

or an internal threat. As Ale states, "safety is associated with incidents and accidents. Security

deals with malicious acts, such as sabotage and terrorism. There is a grey area, however,

where the distinction between security and safety, between accident and criminal act, is

difficult to draw" (2009, p. 12).

Nevertheless, the distinction between the concepts of safety and security is the added

emphasis on being protected from dangers that originate from outside. A security threat

or risk is someone or something that intends to or could cause harm (see Chapter 3 for a

more extensive discussion of threat and harm), applied from the external (the idea of exter-

nal threat should not be taken literally). Safety focuses on the process within the internal

environment. It could be considered that security threats and risks are far more difficult

to address, as the attacker will try to use his or her human ingenuity to bypass any protec-

tion system put into place.

Risk-driven Security

Security is considered a form of risk, applied within the management approach of risk

management. All activities carry some form of risk and, thus, one makes a decision as to

whether to conduct an activity based on the utility of the activity. In other words, does

the risk of an activity outweigh the benefit? Demands for ever greater reductions in risk

exposure—from a cultural, social, community, corporate, and individual basis—can proceed

beyond the point of overall benefit and become counterproductive. There are three significant

points about how people determine the acceptability of risk:

1. Risk is generally less accepted when imposed by external factors over which people

have little or no control. People demand higher safety standards at work and risks in

the workplace are not well accepted, because people cannot control their exposure.

2. Risks stemming from identifiable activities are not as accepted. Incidents such as the

Exxon Valdez oil spill are less accepted because someone is at fault.

3. Simple numbers and probabilities are inadequate to represent reaction to incidents of

different magnitude. Catastrophic events are given far more attention than more

frequent, but lower consequence, events.

Nevertheless, risk is the possibility of incurring loss or misfortune, which is distinct from

security. There is a degree of interrelationship, but risk management takes an actuary

9 SECURITY OF INDIVIDUALS

approach to security. An actual or perceived risk will eventuate in the need for some form of

security, whether that is at the individual, group, or nation-state levels. Security is an outcome

of risk, and in today's world, the concept of risk could be considered to take precedence over

security (see Chapter 3).

SECURITY OF GROUPS

The security of groups extension can be discussed within the context of the law and public

security. For example, the underlying nature of the law and social contract, where law is the

foundation of our society, and security is the maintainer or enforcer. In addition, the function

of public security (e.g., police) as both policing and private security are becoming more reliant

on each other and converging.

The Law and Social Contract

Driving and developing public security was the most significant aspect that led to our current

social construct, namely the phenomenon of the social contract between the individual and the

nation-state. This contract was perhaps a fundamental aspect that shaped and defined the

broader concept of security as we know it today. We, as individuals, surrender some of our rights

for protection by our nation-state, and in exchange the nation-state expects us to support it.

Society, as a whole, defines social expectations or norms. The law is the foundation and

articulates these social norms. If an individual or group operates beyond those social norms,

they are considered to be breaking the social contract and therefore breaking the law. To

maintain the social contract requires a reaction—in general, defined public security or, more

commonly, policing. Therefore, security is the enforcer or output of the social contract.

Public Security (Policing)

The primary public security function is to maintain accepted behaviors among the commu-

nity, upholding law and regulations, and protecting a nation-state's' general public (Zedner,

2009). Nevertheless, public security is often considered a form of security and is developed

hand-in-hand with other practice areas of security. While one security practice area may have

been more dominate than the other at some point in time, each rose concurrently, supporting

each other and with members moving between areas. While it is considered that private

security developed first, it is important to consider that security reflects society and aims

to meet the needs of its society. Western views suggest that security may have first been

documented in medieval England, with programs to clear the king's roads of brush to serve

as a precaution against highway robbery.

As society changes, so does security, and there are extensive discussions on public security

verses private security. It would be highly unlikely that nation-states would wholly replace

their public security functions for wholly private security services. In the past where this has

been attempted, the results have been for a short-term financial state benefit, public discourse,

and contract termination (Knote, 2004). Nevertheless, both relationships and contractual

10 1. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

Intentionally left as blank

partnerships have and will continue to be successful and expand. Relationships between

public security and private security have been growing for many years. In the past, this has

been through second-career police officers moving from one career to the other. Both public

security and other security practice areas can see the benefits of such a relationship. In addi-

tion, contractual partnerships have been increasing, where private security complement and

allow sworn public officers to be more effective in frontline public security functions.

Distinct differences between public security and private security are their philosophy,

principles, authority, and status (Table 1.3 ), where public security has the obligation of

egalitarian service but private security obligations are client exclusive (Knote, 2004,

pp. 2–22; Sarre and Prenzler, 2011 , p. 83). In other words, public security upholds the social

contract, whereas private security protects one's own assets. Private security's primary func-

tion is to protect their client's people, information, and assets. Such an approach does lead to

varying needs between very similar organizations, resulting with inconsistencies. In addition,

the debate in regard to a profit or nonprofit approach should be considered, but this may

reduce with increasing financial pressure in many public departments. Nevertheless, public

security and private security have quite a different intent.

Public security has many similar functions to the other practicing security domains; how-

ever, it is quite distinct. Public security reacts to an event, with the function to enforce social

law. The reactive nature distinguishes public security from private security, which attempts

to prepare for an event to protect one's own property.

TABLE 1.3 Public Security versus Private Security Functions

Private Security Function Public Security

Client Input Citizen

Selective Service Equal

Profit-driven Delivery resourcing Tax-funded

Undetermined Finance Predetermined

Fragmented Structure Centralized

Citizen Power Legislated

Limited Training Intensive

Loss prevention Role Law enforcement

Protection Orientation Offender

Specific Target General

Private Space Public

Restricted Regulated Heavily

Wide Discretion Limited

Asset protection Output Enforcement

Proactive Stance Reactive

11 SECURITY OF GROUPS

Private Security

A significant development in security has been the growth of private security, which has

grown into a large and international industry that can be broadly defined as an industry de-

voted to crime prevention. Private security is also known as organizational security, corporate

security (Brooks, 2009), commercial security, asset protection, and security management.

Private security officers outnumber public security (police) officers at the estimated global

average of 348 to 318 per 100,000 of population (Prenzler et al., 2009 , p. 4). In the United States,

there are 10,000 security companies employing 1.8 million security guards, equating to almost

three private security officers to every public security officer, and this ratio is expected to

increase (Hemmens et al., 2001 ). Cities in the United States are spending $70 million per week

on security services (Fischer et al., 2008).

The private security industry is an emerging and relatively young discipline and the

traditional distinction between past security entities of public security, private security,

and defense are merging. The expansive nature of private security has resulted in limited

and diffuse understanding, even though extensive resources are being expended. The role

of private security has further expanded, and "there is now an acknowledged role for com-

mercial security in actions against global security threats, national security concerns, local

community safety needs, as well as the requirements of the corporation and the individual"

(Wakefield, 2007 , pp. 13–14).

Combining the findings of several studies (Bradley and Sedgwick, 2009; van Steden and

Sarre, 2007), it has to be noted that the strong growth of private security can be attributed

to the following factors:

• The reduction in the public provision of services by nation-states.

• The general increase in the fear of crime.

• The transfer of noncore public security tasks to the private sector.

• Growing value and portability of assets requiring more protection.

Within many parts of the world, the security industry is not classified as one industry;

rather, its members are spread across many associated practice areas that include many oc-

cupations. Private security's prime purpose is to maintain corporate activity, allowing output

and support profit. Thus, such purpose may be applied to not only private organizations but

also public organizations. However, to sustain security requires the cost to be spread between

receiving beneficiaries or stakeholders of the mitigating strategies. In addition, such security

has to consider intangible aspects of social and community issues, a difficult task when deal-

ing with such diverse stakeholders with competing views.

The growth of private security will continue and its importance strengthened within the

broad spectrum of security. Therefore, there is a greater need to better understand and

develop a scientific foundation for the security science practice area.

SECURITY OF NATION-STATE AND INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMS

Security extensions of both nation-states and international systems can be discussed within

the context of the traditional approaches to international security, such as defense or military

12 1. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

power. In addition, international systems may include national security, which is focused on

local and regional nation-state protection. A more recent approach to nation-state security is

homeland security, the convergence of traditional security practice areas such as defense,

public security, and private security. Finally, the politicized approach to some or all of these

security extensions is considered with securitization.

National Security and Defense

Security has strong parallels with defense, as once groups formed and became nations,

these had to be protected and expanded; nevertheless, defense cannot explicitly define secu-

rity. The recent international security environment has witnessed the erosion of traditional

nation-states with increased globalization and access to worldwide information networks

that have further merged defense and security (Stapley et al., 2006 ). The conventional view

of security in defense concerns the survival of the nation-state and the preservation of its sov-

ereignty (Hettne, 2010, p. 33). Revolving around this view are definitions that are "more

concerned with redefining the policy agendas of nation-states" (Baldwin, 1997 , p. 5).

Defense, as with other related practice areas, is often considered security. An example of

such parallelism may be demonstrated through public security and military organizations,

and the increasing convergence in their response to homeland security challenges. Neverthe-

less, opposing such convergence is still the large number of different state agencies that may

respond. Thus, such diverse and multidisciplined views of security cannot support a single

definition of security.

Homeland Security

An applied extension of security of nation-state is homeland security. Homeland security

incorporates and attempts to integrate diverse domains of security such as defense, national

security, private security, and public security. National and public security also integrate first

responders and disaster recovery departments such as fire and emergency, medical facilities

and staff, and other state departments such as intelligence agencies.

An example of such integration can be seen in the United States, where the Department of

Homeland Security (DHS) was formed as a result of national security events and directed

threats. Many other nation-states have not been so direct in their attempt to reconstruct their

approach to national security and the need for greater convergent security. Nevertheless,

many nation-states have shifted their approach to national security to better integrate their

broad security domains, attempting to ensure that they can better tackle their changing

national threats. As Fischer et al. suggest, more nation-states are now experiencing greater

government control in establishing and maintaining the nations' security (2008); however,

much of this security is supported by the private sector.

In the United States, homeland security is officially defined by the National Strategy for

Homeland Security as "a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the

United States, reduce America's vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and re-

cover from attacks that do occur." The DHS includes the Federal Emergency Management

Agency, which has responsibility for preparedness, response, and recovery to natural

13 SECURITY OF NATION-STATE AND INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMS

disasters. The scope of homeland security includes emergency preparedness and response for

an all-hazards approach to such events as terrorism to natural disasters. In addition, domestic

and international intelligence activities, critical infrastructure protection, and border security

that includes land, maritime, and nation borders.

World nation-states react to local, state, and regional threats and situations, resulting in

political agendas where policy is developed and driven by many vectors. Such policy drives

the domains of security to varying degrees, based on their own and competing factors. Thus,

the affect is seen not only in national security, but in all aspects of a community from transit

security, public and private utilities, public buildings, and private facilities.

Securitization

The concept of securitization was put forward as a means to better understand security,

based on the notion of different sectors of security drawn from speech act theory (Buzan

et al., 1998). Securitization highlights the intellectual and political aspects in using the term

security for an ever wider range of issues. The idea argues that it is essential that an analytical

grounding or principle has to determine what is and what is not a security issue. If this ap-

proach is not taken, there is a danger that the concept of security will be applied to any issue

and hence becomes effectively meaningless. Furthermore, the concept of security is directed to

survival; therefore, an issue is represented as an existential threat to the survival of an object.

Securitization is achieved when an issue comes to be treated as a security issue and it is

reasonable to use exceptional political measures to deal with it, thus the issue has been

"securitized." We can think about the process of securitization in terms of a spectrum that

extends from nonpoliticized (meaning that an issue is not a political issue), through politicized

(meaning it is part of a public debate), to securitized (meaning that the issue is thought of as an

existential threat and therefore justifies responses that go beyond normal political practices)

(Peoples and Vaughan-Williams, 2010 , p. 77). Securitization can be extended to all sectors of

security such as the military, environment, economic, and societal, and of course its focus

being the political arena, although it has not been extended to the individual.

CONCEPT OF SECURITY MATRIX

Security has been considered within the context of its extension, namely of the individual,

group, nation-state, and international. Various theories have been used in an attempt to de-

fine the concept of security; nevertheless, security is not easy to define. As Manunta and

Manunta state, "security is both a need and philosophical idea" (2006, p. 631).

One approach to better understand the concept of security and provide understanding is

through the articulation of context or practice areas. Such an approach can be more clearly

demonstrated when considering some of the applied domains of security, using and increas-

ing the "extensions" of security. Table 1.4 is not comprehensive, but it demonstrates the more

popular view of security within a matrix format.

However, Table 1.4 does demonstrate, to some degree, the importance of understanding

the context of security. Where, as with risk, a definition of security is dependent on a clear

14 1. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

articulation of context to gain understanding. With this in mind, there needs to be a definition

that provides a more appropriate context for security, which in this case commences with

defining security science.

SECURITY SCIENCE: CONTEXT DEFINES CONCEPT DEFINITION

When considering a definition of security science, one approach is to view security within a

practise area or with context. Such an approach allows a review of what functions security

practitioners perform and leads to an understanding of its body of knowledge. There has been

past studies (ASIS International, 2010; Brooks, 2009; Hesse and Smith, 2001 ) that have taken

such an approach to develop a security science body of knowledge; nevertheless, before these

studies can be considered a final definition will be presented.

Theoretical Definition of Security

Manunta (1999) put forward a definition of security that encompasses the natures of security

(Table 1.2 ), as it can be applied across the many extensions of security from the individual to

national defense. In addition, the definition allows, to some degree, the aspects of security to

be addressed, namely the objective, subjective, and symbolic nature of security. The definition

uses a formula that combines a number of mutually inclusive components:

Security ¼ð A; P; T ðÞ Si

where A is asset, P is protection, Tis threat, and Si is situation.

TABLE 1.4 Applied Security Matrix

by/for Defense

Public

Security

Homeland

Security

Corporate

Security

Private

Security Individual

International X

Regional XX X

Nation-state XXXX XX XXXX

Community XX XXXX XXX X X

Organization X XX X XXXX XXX X

Group XX X XX XX X

Peer X X X XX

Family XXX

Individual XXXX

Note: X indicates the strength of the relationship between the security provider (by) and the receiver of security (for ), with XXXX having the

strongest and X having the weakest relationships.

15 SECURITY SCIENCE: CONTEXT DEFINES CONCEPT DEFINITION

For security to be considered there must be an asset (A ), and there is an individual, group,

or nation-state who wish to provide some level of protection (P ), with an actual or perceived

threat (T) against the asset. In addition, the sum of these components has to be considered

within a certain environment or situation (Si ), giving the definition context. Thus, the formula

provides the elements of security; nevertheless, the formula is deficient in several aspects.

First, let us consider that for security to be addressed, the asset has to have value (whether

actual or intrinsic). Second, and an issue with many security definitions, the formula does

not assist in a consensual understanding of security. The ability to define security still

requires context, thus placing security within a situation.

Studies in a Body of Knowledge

Traditional academic disciplines exhibit characteristics that designate them as a discipline.

One of the more significant characteristics is a body of knowledge , which needs to be well

defined and inclusive. Supporting and integral to a body of knowledge is the structure of

knowledge, which provides internal structure of the knowledge through conceptual relation-

ships that exhibit consistency and logic.

The knowledge domain of security has yet to achieve the status of being designated an ac-

ademic discipline, as it lacks validity in the characteristics of a definable and defendable body

of knowledge. This is an area that researchers, educators, industry, and government have

been progressing; nevertheless, slowly due to the inability to define the many domains of se-

curity. Such issues include an understanding of what this practice area encompasses and also

semantics—for example, is it security management or protection of assets?

Notwithstanding these issues, research groups (ASIS International, 2010; Brooks, 2009;

Hesse and Smith, 2001; Kooi and Hinduja, 2008 ) have begun to progress a defendable body of

knowledge. One such group is ASIS International, at their annual practitioner/academic sym-

posia. An outcome of their annual symposium has been the development of a security model

containing what the group believed were the core elements of security, which has within the

United States provided a baseline for tertiary-level course development (ASIS International,

2003). For example, the 2009 symposium attempted to gain an understanding of the security

body of knowledge, understand what disciplines security may extract its knowledge categories

from, what knowledge categories are core, how these knowledge categories can be used, and

to consider if consistency and consensus can be gained. In addition, a list of 18 knowledge

categories ( ASIS International, 2009, p. 44) was put forward as a security model ( Table 1.5 ).

TABLE 1.5 ASIS International Symposium Security Model

Physical security Personnel security Information security systems

Investigations Loss prevention Risk management

Legal aspects Emergency/continuity planning Fire protection

Crisis management Disaster management Counterterrorism

Competitive intelligence Executive protection Violence in the workplace

Crime prevention Crime prevention through environmental

design

Security architecture and engineering

16 1. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

Kooi and Hinduja (2008, p. 299) summarize their experience of teaching security to

criminal justice undergraduates where they considered the wider understanding of the

art and science of security, resulting in the recommendation of 19 topic areas (Table 1.6).

Nevertheless, it could be argued that many of these proposed topics—for example, retail,

casino, Olympic, nuclear, and museum security—are practice areas rather than security

knowledge.

Security education, from the perspective of criminal justice and social science, can be ben-

eficial in further validating security categories and the body of knowledge; however, such

studies may also increase confusion as to what may constitute security and reduce the ability

of achieving consensus in the near to medium term.

In a study to define security, Brooks (2009) put forward a list of 13 security knowledge cat-

egories (Table 1.7). The list was extracted and developed from a critique of 104 international

undergraduate tertiary security courses from Australia, South Africa, United Kingdom, and

the United States.

Thus, listings from these many groups begin to support a common body of knowledge.

Such security knowledge categories provide a number of benefits, such as providing a degree

of contextual understanding and the commencement of a security science body of knowledge,

supporting a contextual definition. Furthermore, these categories allow a consolidated frame-

work of security science to be presented. Nevertheless, security science will be prone to a

TABLE 1.6 Security Course: Components in the Context of a Criminal Justice Undergraduate Degree

The origins and development

of security

Security education, training,

certification, and regulation

The role of security

Proprietary vs. contract security Risk analysis and security survey Perimeter and exterior security

Interior security and access

control

Transportation/cargo security Computer and information

security

Security and the law Internal and external fraud Personnel policies and human

relations

Workplace violence Retail security Casino security

Olympic security Nuclear security Museum security

Continuity of operations

TABLE 1.7 Security Knowledge Categories

Criminology Business continuity management Security management

Facility management Industrial security Security technology

Investigations Physical security Law

Risk management Safety Fire science

Source: Adjusted from Brooks, 2009.

17 SECURITY SCIENCE: CONTEXT DEFINES CONCEPT DEFINITION

suffering from a fluid body of knowledge due to such issues as knowledge structure, termi-

nology, differing context, and practice domains and academic disciplines that feel that they

have some ownership of security knowledge.

Consolidated Framework of Security Science

The integration of the 13 knowledge categories from Table 1.7 leads to a framework of se-

curity science (Figure 1.3 ). Such a framework considers the breadth of security science,

whereas traditional security knowledge has generally focused on electronic, manpower,

and physical security categories and not the range of security-related functions. As the secu-

rity science framework indicates along its upper axis, core security knowledge categories

comprise of risk management, business continuity management (BCM), security technology

(encompassing traditional electronic security, but also IT and computing), physical security,

personnel security, and industrial security, all applied at operational, tactical, and strategic

levels. Industrial security encompasses security requirements in unique environments such

as nuclear, aviation security, maritime security, and critical infrastructure. Many of these in-

dustries have legislative security requirements.

The model may overlap other disciplines, which is appropriate as other disciplines can and

do support security science with allied theories. Supporting security knowledge categories

include investigations, law, criminology, facility management, fire and life safety, occupa-

tional safety and health, and intelligence. Such an approach supports what more mature

disciplines do—that is, selectively draw from related disciplines to append their unique

offerings (Young, 2007 , p. 84). In addition, the tabulated knowledge categories and integrated

framework provide some degree of concept definition, assisting in understanding orga-

niational security and commencing knowledge structure.

Thus, organizational security operates at many levels within an organization, such as op-

erational, tactical, strategic, and governance. At the operational level, the day-to-day practice

of security ensures that the function of security is achieved and maintained at the appropriate

level to counter the threat, and meets the organization's expectations and legislative compli-

ance. Nevertheless, effective security should also operate at a tactical level, seeking methods

Operational

Management

Strategic

Governance

Physical

Technology

Investigations

BCM

Criminology Fire & Life

Safety Safety

Industrial

Personnel

Facility

Management

Law Intelligence

Level 1

Level 2

Security Risk

Management

FIGURE 1.3 Integrated knowledge framework of security science. (Used with permission from Brooks, 2012, p. 10.)

18 1. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

to improve performance and provide tangible benefits to the organization. Perhaps the most

important level in developing a true security profession is the ability of practitioners to be

effective at the strategic security level. Such an approach aligns security with the group's core

goals and future directions, allowing proactive management and supporting the group. As

Langston and Lauge-Kristensen state, "it is this [strategic] level that separates the routine

from the dynamic, and justifies the emergence of ... a professional discipline in its own right"

(2002, p. xv).

There have been a number of assumptions made within this integrated framework and

other security models presented. These assumptions considered that some knowledge

categories are more relevant to security than others; therefore, this framework incorporates

a hierarchy of knowledge categories. Level 1 may be considered core security knowledge cat-

egories, whereas level 2 is noncore knowledge categories. The noncore knowledge categories

may be allied disciplines, practice domains, or industries informing or supporting the general

function of security. In addition, the fluid nature of a defined security science body of knowl-

edge can be overcome. The acceptance of such a framework and its knowledge has to go

through iterations, until international consensus can be demonstrated. Nevertheless, with

the increasing tertiary offerings, and a greater research commitment, such consensus will

be achieved.

SECURITY SCIENCE

Security science is an idea that brings together many concepts and principles—with some,

in the future, becoming theories—into a developing and structured body of knowledge. Such

convergence is the beginning of an academic discipline in the traditional sense. Nevertheless,

security science is still in its formative years with a developing set of characteristics that will,

in the future, make it a profession and an academic discipline.

It is important that security science develops a structured and defined body of knowledge,

with a clear context or practice definition. A more simplistic view of security science—beyond

the integrated knowledge framework—can be presented as a Venn diagram, which integrates

the concepts of security management, the built environment and security principles,

informed and directed by security risk management (Figure 1.4). Security management

encompasses the human function of security, including tasks like management, business,

Principles

Security

Risk

Management

Security

Management

Built

Environment

FIGURE 1.4 Primary concepts of security science.

19 SECURITY SCIENCE

finance, administration, awareness, and policy and procedures. The built environment

includes the physical and technological environment we live, work, and play in. Principles

are related security strategies, including allied academic theories appropriate in supporting

the function of security. Such principles may include the functions of deter, detect, delay,

respond, and recover to criminology offender studies. Finally, security risk management

directs, informs, and, to some degree, quantifies the security mitigation strategies. Thus, such

a model may provide some overview of the function of security science.

Nevertheless, we must always be aware that we are attempting to counter at the extreme,

motivated attackers with the intent to use knowledge and resources to circumvent our mit-

igation strategies. In addition, being secured is a paradox as it is "measured by the absence of

activities which would have negative effects on the corporation if they occurred" (Challinger,

2006, p. 587). When security controls are working, it appears as though nothing is happening,

and to some degree there lies the paradox.

CONCLUSION

Security is diverse and multidimensional, leaving the ability to define and understand the

concept of security open to debate. Nevertheless, security can be contextually defined, once

the practice domain and its functions have been articulated. Many parts of the practice do-

mains of security lack definition and are defuse, yet are distinct fields of practice and, to some

degree, academic disciplines.

As a broad concept, security can be defined in many ways. One such method is the nature

of security, where security can be considered as international systems, security of nation-

states, security of groups, or the security of individuals (Rothschild, 1995 ). In addition, secu-

rity has to be considered from an objective, subjective, and symbolic perspective. Such duality

allows theories and ideas to more effectively consider all parts of security. For example, the

security of the individual may use Maslow's hierarchy of human needs (1943), or the related

but distinct concepts of security and safety, or, finally, the effect of risk. Risk has always been

closely related to the concept of security, but it is only in recent times that the management of

risk has played such a significant role in applied security.

Security of groups has to consider the underlying nature of law and the social contract,

where law may be considered a foundation of society and security is an output, being a

maintainer or enforcer. The security maintainer has, for over 100 years, been considered

the function of public security (policing), although private security is becoming more relevant

and both domains are converging. The security of nation-states and international arenas in-

clude military defense, which is one of the more traditional views of security. More recently,

homeland security has been applied at the nation-state level, converging traditional security

practice areas such as defense, public security, and private security.

The security industry requires, among other characteristics, a dedicated academic disci-

pline to support its professional development. A dedicated academic discipline can validate

and structure the growing body of knowledge through the scientific method, seeking cause

and effect. Whether such research uses the scientific method or an engineering design

approach, either will suit the diverse strategies applied in security and develop the discipline

of security science.

20 1. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

SECURITY

SCIENCE

The Theory and Practice

of Security

CLIFTON LS MITH

Electron Science Research Institute

Edith Cowan University

DAVID JB ROOKS

School of Computer and Security Science

Security Research Institute

Edith Cowan University

Security science is an emerging academic discipline that brings together concepts into a

structured body of knowledge. At its most simplistic, knowledge areas include security man-

agement, security theories and principles, the built environment, and security risk manage-

ment. These concepts can be expanded into an integrated framework that also includes

business continuity, security technology, physical and personnel security, and industrial

security (see Figure 1.3). Thus, context provides many parts of security with clear understand-

ing of its operating boundaries, from which further consensus in a body of knowledge can be

achieved.

Further Reading

Button, M., 2008. Doing Security: Critical Reflections and an Agenda for Change. Palgrave Macmillian, Houndmills,

Basingstoke, UK.

References

Ale, B., 2009. Risk: An Introduction—The Concepts of Risk. Sanger and Chance, Routledge, Abingdon.

Angus and Roberston, 1992. Dictionary and Thesaurus. HarperCollins Publishers, Sydney.

ASIS International, 2003. Proceedings of the 2003 Academic/Practitioner Symposium. University of Maryland,

College Park, ASIS International.

ASIS International, 2009, July 29–31. 2009 Academic/Practitioner Symposium. Paper presented at the 2009

Academic/Practitioner Symposium, University of Maryland, College Park.

ASIS International, 2010. 2010 Academic/Practitioner Symposium. Paper presented at the 2010 Academic/

Practitioner Symposium Hilton Old Town, Alexandra, VA.

Baldwin, D.A., 1997. The concept of security. Review of International Studies 23 (1), 5–26.

Bradley, T., Sedgwick, C., 2009. Policing beyond the police: A "first cut" study of private security in New Zealand.

Policing and Society 19 (4), 468–492.

Brooks, D.J., 2009. What is security: Definition through knowledge categorisation. Security Journal 23 (3), 229–239.

Brooks, D.J., 2012. Corporate security: Using knowledge construction to define a practising body of knowledge. Asian

Journal of Criminology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11417-012-9135-1.

Buzan, B., Waever, O., de Wilde, J., 1998. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Lynne Rienner, London.

Challinger, D., 2006. Corporate security: A cost or contributor to the bottom line? In: Gill, M. (Ed.), The Handbook of

Security. Palgrave Macmillian Ltd, Basingstoke, UK, pp. 586–609.

Davidson, M.A., 2005. A matter of degrees. Security Management 49 (12), 72–99.

Fischer, R.J., Halibozek, E., Green, G., 2008. Introduction to Security, eighth ed. Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston.

Hemmens, C., Maahs, J., Scarborough, K.E., Collins, P.A., 2001. Watching the watchmen: State regulation of private

security, 1983–1998. Security Journal 14 (4), 17–28.

Hesse, L., Smith, C.L., 2001. Core Curriculum in Security Science. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 5th

Australian Security Research Symposium, Perth, Western Australia.

Hettne, B., 2010. Development and Security: Origins and Future. Security Dialogue 41 (1), 31–52.

Huitt, W., 2004. Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs. Retrieved March 1, 2009, from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/

whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html.

Knote, M.E., 2004. Part 1: Introduction to assets protection. In: Williams, T.L. (Ed.), Protection of Assets Manual. POA

Publishing, Los Angeles.

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290–307.

Langston, C., Lauge-Kristensen, R., 2002. Strategic Management of Built Facilities. Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston.

Manunta, G., 1999. What is security? Security Journal 12 (3), 57–66.

Manunta, G., Manunta, R., 2006. Theorizing about security. In: Gill, M. (Ed.), The Handbook of Security. Palgrave

Macmillan, New York, pp. 629–657.

21 CONCLUSION

Maslow, A.H., 1943. A theory on human motivation. Psychol Rev 50 (4), 370–396.

Peoples, C., Vaughan-Williams, N., 2010. Critical Security Studies: An Introduction. Routledge, Oxon.

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Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston.

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in Crime and Criminology 374, 1–6.

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Reform in the New Era of Plural Policing. Australian Research Council, Caberra.

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they learn from each other? In: Gill, M. (Ed.), The Handbook of Security. Palgrave Macmillian Ltd, Basingstoke,

UK, pp. 45–65.

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222–235.

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Wittgenstein, L., 1953/2001. Philosophical Investigations. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.

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22 1. CONCEPT OF SECURITY

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broaden our understanding, changes in research methods or professional practices, may become

necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in

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Printed in the United States of America

131410987654321

To my dearest wife Maree and daughters Fiona and Amanda who always supported me

in my endeavors.

To Professor John De Laeter who showed me how to be a scientist.

—Clifton L. Smith

To my darling wife Glenda, for the hours that this work has taken me from you. You are

still my world.

To Professor Clifton Smith, coauthor and mentor, who inspired me to reach this place.

To my Australian and United Kingdom families, my foundation.

—David J. Brooks

Intentionally left as blank

Contents

Acknowledgments ix

About the Authors xi

Foreword xiii

Preface xv

1. Concept of Security

Introduction 1

Scientific Method in Support of Security Science 2

Defining the Concept of Security 6

Security of Individuals 8

Security of Groups 10

Security of Nation-State and International

Systems 12

Concept of Security Matrix 14

Security Science: Context Defines Concept

Definition 15

Security Science 19

Conclusion 20

2. Security Management

Introduction 23

Security Management Issues 24

A Systems Approach 25

Security Management 27

Strategic Security Management Frameworks 30

Organizational Resilience 35

Security Management Functions 38

Security Management Policies and Procedures 43

Security Principles 46

Security Ethics 46

Security Decay 47

Conclusion 48

3. Security Risk Management

Introduction 51

The Concept of Risk 52

Defining Risk 53

The Concepts of Probability to

Likelihood 54

Importance of Consequence 55

Source of Risk 56

Risk Management 56

An International Approach to Risk

Management 57

Security Risk Management 62

Threat 64

Criticality 66

Vulnerability 67

Threat, Criticality, and Vulnerability 69

Risk Models and Modeling 70

Gaming Risk 70

Decision-making in Risk 71

Perception and Culture 73

Trust 75

Gaining Consensus 77

Conclusion 78

4. Built Environment

Introduction 81

Built Environment 82

Security and the Built Environment 83

Facility Management 85

Who is the Facility Manager? 86

Facility Management and Security 90

Building Management Systems 90

Protecting the Facility 102

Conclusion 102

5. Physical Security

Introduction 105

Routine Activity Theory 106

Defense-in-Depth 107

Crime Prevention Through Environmental

Design 111

Physical Barriers 117

Relationships Between DiD Functions 120

Conclusion 126

vii

6. Detection Systems

Introduction 129

Theory 130

Function of Security Technology 139

Barrier and Open Ground Detection 142

Testing Systems 145

Conclusion 151

7. Integrated Identification Technology

Introduction 153

Background 154

Access Control Systems 157

Cards 160

Biometrics 163

Intelligent CCTV 171

Conclusion 174

8. Knowledge Management

Introduction 177

Knowledge 178

Intelligence 187

Intelligence in Security Management 191

Vetting 194

Predictive Profiling 196

Conclusion 197

9. Business Continuity Management

Introduction 199

Crisis 200

Four Phases of a Crisis 201

Business Continuity Management 203

Essential Elements of Business Continuity

Management 205

BCM Framework 207

Business Impact Forecasting 211

Learning from a Crisis 213

Common Elements of BCM 214

Security and BCM 221

Conclusion 222

10. The Future of Security

Introduction 225

Background 226

Security in the Future 229

Future of Intelligence 239

Professionalism 243

Management 246

Conclusion 248

Index 251

viii CONTENTS

... Corporate security is an organisational undertaking with the function to provide services which ensure stability and protection of business operations from malicious disruption and harm (Talbot & Jakeman, 2009). Furthermore, the application of corporate security is underpinned by the implementation of policy and functionally achieved through a combination of procedural, technical and physical risk strategies and control measures (Smith & Brooks, 2012). Consequently, corporate security transforms organisational resources through the application of management practices into a protective business function. ...

... The practice of corporate security has often been considered from a managerial context. As a result of this, effective security managers view their outputs as contributors to overall business objectives (Smith & Brooks, 2012); seeking to align their function to the whole organisation (Sennewald, 2011). Such a position can be historically traced to early theorists of scientific management, where Fayol (1949) purported security to be, among others, a core business activity of every organisation. ...

... Consequently, the definition of security is often contested, with many agreeing that the concept of security is contextual, and as such, difficult to define (Cubbage & Brooks, 2013;Fay, 2002;Fischer, Halibozek, & Green, 2008;Hillman, 2011;Prenzler, 2005). Regardless, the concept of security can be considered from the individual, group, and national context, each with their own implied assumptions, meanings, and applications (Smith & Brooks, 2012, p. 7). ...

• Codee Ludbey

Corporate security is a practicing domain and developing academic discipline that provides for the protection of people, information and assets, as well as the self-protection of organisations. Fayol (1949) articulated such an activity within organisations to be a core business function of significant importance; embedding security operations within all aspects of organisational work. This embedded nature of security within organisations has led to difficulty in the literature delineating roles and responsibilities of security practitioners; consequently leading to a nebulous understanding of security as a whole. Therefore, an investigation of the corporate security stratum of work has been undertaken to address this issue in part, undertaking an innovative, objective approach. The study embraced the broader socio-organisational literature to ground and orient the research, providing an outward-in perspective in its exploration of the corporate security function. The research perspective was rooted in the sociological theory of structural functionalism, where Parsons (1951) and Durkheim (1984) identified an occupational stratum of work seated within a differentiated and stratified society. Such a society induces individuals to fulfil specialist roles, which can be ranked hierarchically along a stratum of work. Significantly, organisations are the practical implementation of this occupational stratum of work, with specialist roles aligned hierarchically and controlled through positions of authority. Jaques (1951, 2002) articulated seven strata of work within organisations, each delineated by their capacity to understand complexity and capability to manage tasks into the future. This study undertook an ethnographic approach, consisting of two parts. Firstly, the literature critique informed the design and implementation of the research instrument; which consisted of two tools. Secondly, the administration of the research instrument to the participant sample, which was refined through a pilot study (N=16) and then applied to the main study (N=42). The study identified a suitable sample consisting of security practitioners functionally positioned across the stratum of work, with this sample being purposively selected. Significantly, the study revealed a disconnect between the corporate security and socioorganisational literature, with many points of divergence. Such disconnect is rooted in a misperception of the importance and positioning of the corporate security function by the corporate security literature. Therefore, the study has revealed that corporate security operates at a tactical and operational level within an organisation, functionally positioned between Stratum One and Stratum Four. This finding indicates that the concept of corporate security as a strategic function with executive reach is invalid, and the existence of a strategic security practitioner is not the norm. Furthermore, the study has established the corporate security function as an operating activity situated within the technostructure of organisations; leveraging its ability to diagnose, infer, and treat discipline specific concerns. Subsequently, these findings have uncovered several significant implications for policy, education, academia, and the broader community. These implications include career progression pathways and an understanding of the glass ceiling for security practitioners; professionalisation of the industry, including insights into corporate perceptions of the function; corporate security practitioner role definition and articulation, where defined jurisdictional boundaries can be begin to be drawn; and the fallout of a misaligned corporate security literature consensus.

... proactive policing. Another way of managing physical spaces would be mechanical -incorporating security hardware such as CCTV (Smith and Brooks, 2012). ...

... Students feel unsafe because they have no control over who can access the university's public space. What made people feel safe on campus was DMU's physical security, which encompasses a mixture of human and mechanical security.Smith and Brooks (2012) note that this type of CPTED can often impact how people feel about specific places. ...

• Jodi Rose

The purpose of this study was to investigate if crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) in Leicester affects DMU student's perception of safety. This study aimed to contribute to eliminating the gap of knowledge in the field. The currently available literature has limited information surrounding CPTED and the perception of safety for university students. The research was also chosen to aid De Montfort University and Leicester in addressing any safety concerns mentioned in the study. This study systematically analysed data collected from an online survey that was conducted. An online mixed-method survey approach was taken and distributed via DMU Facebook group platforms. The survey was then thematically analysed. The data highlighted that students have a multitude of safety concerns that often overlap each other, including, but not limited to: lack of lighting, limited surveillance, large amounts of homelessness, antisocial behaviour and the lack of proactive policing/security. The findings of this study demonstrate that there is a link between CPTED and the perception of safety for DMU students. Recommendations for improvements will be made for Leicester and De Montfort University to action at their discretion.

... This is also called Alarm receiving center. The function of an alarm in a monitoring and detection system is "to indicate that an anomalous signal has been detected" (Smith et al., 2013) and that a response is required to investigate this. The response might be to shut the alarm down if a false alarm is discovered, or for the incident to be referred for further investigation by stake holders, first responders or the police. ...

• Sunday Salimon

Description Installation of capacitors in power networks are generally used for the improvement of the network power factor, improvement of the voltage profile and the voltage stability index, maximizing flow through cables and transformer, and minimization of total power loses due to the compensation of the reactive component of power flow. These benefits depend to a very large extent on the size and location of the capacitor in the radial distribution network as wrong placement can lead to the opposite effects. Furthermore, the appropriate placement of capacitors will reduce the total capacitor costs and the running expenses of Distribution Companies (DISCOs). In this paper, the problem of optimal placement and sizing of capacitor in the buses of Nigerian distribution network is addressed. The proposed methodology uses the Cuckoo Search Algorithm (CSA) to determine the size and the location satisfying the operating constraints. To demonstrate the capability of the proposed method, it was tested Imalefalafia 32 bus radial distribution network of the Ibadan Electricity Distribution Company (IBEDC). The simulation results obtained with compensation was compared with that of the base case (without compensation) and found to be encouraging.

... In the field of archaeology, there has, to my knowledge, been no attempt at defining a theoretical concept of security for the study of past behaviours and motivations. However, security in modern society has become a formalised field of scientific research in recent years, which has involved a growing theoretical development (Gill 2006;Smith and Brooks 2013). ...

• Heidi Lund Berg

This thesis examines the technological and social parameters for, and the social impact of, the introduction and implementation of locking into Norway in the Iron Age, based on analyses of locks and keys. The functional properties of locking devices and their practical applications as security mechanisms constitute the focal point of the study, and the basis for discussing how locking contributed to the ordering and organisation of life and society in the course of the first millennium AD. The main aims are to establish an empirical foundation for the study of locking devices and to understand locks and keys as a technological and social phenomenon which was affected by and had effects on the societies that created and used them. The archaeological material is approached from a conceptual framework centred on perspectives of entanglement and social boundaries, in which locking is considered a social practice. As material agents locks and keys are seen as involved in the physical protection of things and spaces, regulation of access, and manifestation of ownership rights, as well as the creation and negotiation of values and norms as part of social order. The analytical material is comprised by more than eight hundred locks and keys dated from the Roman Period to the Viking Age, deriving from burials, depositions, and settlements, as well as single finds. The finds are used in the construction of renewed classifications for Scandinavian locks and keys, which is based on their functional designs and their correlation to lockable containers, doors, and fetters. Through temporal, spatial, and contextual analyses of types the thesis outlines a complex picture of production, innovation, distribution, and application of locking devices. The results illustrate that locks and keys were introduced and developed in stages in Norway, and that their use expanded and diversified practically as well as socially. The analytical patterns are further discussed in terms of security, ownership, and order, arguing that locking from its introduction became gradually embedded into society during the Iron Age. This is suggested to result from the success of locks and keys in achieving order, and their close relationship with processes of hierarchisation, social differentiation, and social complexity. The thesis provides new insights into the practical functions and applications of diverse locking mechanisms, technological development, craft specialisation, exchange and contact networks, and the social impact of locking in terms of physical and social order. It also contributes to current debates concerning social organisation and transformations within Norway and wider Scandinavia and Northern Europe in the first millennium AD.

... As a result, security-related decisions, mostly, are likely to be marginally evidenced or empirically based on the specific circumstance in which treatments are applied. By default, most organisation's senior management would seemingly act more on responsibilisation (Peterson, 2014) pressures and expectations rather than proactively embracing 'strategic security management framework' (Smith and Brooks, 2012). Despite the higher business management demands inclusive of governance, asset protection, leadership, and productivity outputs. ...

• Tony Ridley

As is often the case with most emergent professions transitioning to a technical discipline, the security profession and broader security industry typically struggle with the distinction and understanding of security management versus that of security leadership. In other words, it generally is unclear as to what explicitly they consider as security leadership as opposed to that of security management. These highly subjective, individual, or localised beliefs rarely remain valid or consistent across geography, culture, or time. For that reason, this research and analysis aim to contribute to the nascent corporate security management and corporate security leadership understanding through an applied literature review and contextual experience within the security profession. We consider them across the international security industry, across countries, jurisdiction and regulatory territories with decades of practical application. In sum, this analysis explores popular perceptions of security management and security leadership by analysing management sciences, contexts, and definitions, which is used to analyse security management and security leadership literature. The result is perhaps predictable, but there appears to be very little valid, empirical security leadership literature because of the lack of consistent units of analysis for comparison, verifiable data, and adequate separation from various biases. Paradoxically, there remains a far greater necessity for specific security management than generalist management practices applied to security as a commodity or concept than the necessity for more significant security leadership. Put another way, security within a corporate (public and private) context is rarely managed by qualified, experienced, and verifiable security risk managers according to a universal body of knowledge or academic standard of education. While this may present as a bold if not contentious assertion, this analysis explores the underlying factors for this verifiable hypothesis. Moreover, it raises significant questions about the empirical and practical application of existing corporate security literature if not constructed by suitably objective and qualified security professionals using consistent, positivist methods and foundations. In particular, if repurposing much of the general management literature to support arguments for security management. Overall, this analysis contributes to much broader issues faced by the security profession and industry.

... With regard to "integrated identification technologies," such as proximity cards, the radio frequency signal (RF) is used to send and receive identification codes. This is science and technology, without life, humanity, or nature [19]. ...

• Shih-Hsing Wu
• Kuo-Kuang Fan
• Chuan-Jen Sun

Taiwan has an abundance of the environmentally-friendly resource bamboo, as well as long-standing Chinese bamboo customs and culture. As a result, modest bamboo furniture accompanies the simple life of Taiwan's residents. However, as people prosper, consumers are beginning to choose bamboo furniture for its decorative design and style more than for its practicality. Therefore, the symbolic application of decorative art is worthy of research and discussion. The purpose of this research is to use codes to explore the decorative design of bamboo tube furniture and enlighten Taiwan's new direction of bamboo furniture design in the future. Through literature content analysis, field expert interviews, and practical experience participation methods, in addition to using function codes, emotion codes, transmission codes, and identification codes to interpret the Han Dynasty's Liushu and Chinese bamboo cultural content, we verify the relevance of the code and bamboo furniture decoration and provide interactive new thinking and creative products.

• Lewis Barnes

The past few years have seen the emergence of new developments in the field of occupational fraud. These have manifested themselves in the forms of both insider trading and the misrepresentation of figures in financial statement reporting. In either case, the result is a loss to stakeholders. The proposed study sets out to establish whether the systemic management of occupational fraud can add value to the firm's wider risk management practices. It will seek to establish how the nature of these value-adding factors can be identified and analysed. The methodology adopted by this research is the collection of primary data from risk man-agers and senior-level security officers of more than fifty organisations. The study-framework employs a quantitative research design via the application of quantitative data-analysis techniques. These include descriptive and demographic statistics, frequency analysis, correlation, and regression. The principal finding of the study are that: • the use of technology, artificial intelligence and blockchain, alongside government regulation, reinforces fraud risk management. • the removal of third parties adds value to the risk-management practices of the organisation concerned. • the use of whistleblowing is shown to be an effective risk-prevention measure. • the existence of 'excessive trust' relationships can increase the risk of occupational fraud. The overall conclusion is that the possibility of occupational fraud can be managed and significantly reduced. This can be achieved with the assistance of artificial intelligence, block-chain and whistleblowing.

• Radoslav Ivančík

Security is one of the most strongly felt human needs, and therefore the issue of security has accompanied mankind throughout its civilized history. It could also be said that the history of mankind is the history of man's struggle to ensure his security. For this reason, the main goal of the author of this study, following the research and works of renowned authors in the field of security, is with the use relevant methods of scientific research to contribute to the development of security theory and discuss the postulates of security theory.

• Tony Ridley

Uncertainty and change will likely dominate the post-pandemic world of travel. While security and terrorism have been constant concerns for tourists, broader issues of personal safety, risk and crime will understandably infuse travel decision making in the wake of COVID-19. This chapter explores the multitude of definitions and expressions that make direct comparisons of security between places exceptionally difficult. In this chapter, context, hyper-specific location, travel security and crime prevention techniques are introduced. The chapter also explores the relationships and overlaps of international security, safety, terrorism, crime and risk. Complete with a series of systematic literature reviews specific to each sub-topic, large data sets, expert analysis and evidence-based decision making, this chapter offers practical tips for travellers at all levels of experience. The curated, practical advice will empower tourists to contribute to their own personal security by better understanding the complexities summed up with simple, practical guidance no matter where they venture. Overall, the consolidated security and terrorism work within this chapter presents an updated base for tourists and the travel industry to relaunch travel in the wake of one of the world's most significant travel disruptions. Tourists should be better informed and equipped for new travel challenges and adventures. Author Tony Ridley MSc is an international security and risk management professional. His global, practical experience range from security management in remote sites, enterprise security management for large multinational entities, commercial security services for millions of travellers and enterprise risk management at a major federal government agency. Tony's also a Veteran.

This paper provides an update of the trend towards greater private provision of policing and security services in the European Union (EU). Although data must be treated with caution, recent figures indicate growth from around 600,000 security employees in 1999 to well over a million today. To predict future trends, researchers must undertake international comparisons of the reach of private security and make a start towards drawing a comprehensive picture of the means by which security industries are best monitored and regulated in national jurisdictions. The authors argue that, in addition, issues of equality, professionalism and accountability surrounding privatized policing must become a focus of research attention by practitioners and theorists alike.

• Ben Ale

Investments, global warming and crossing the road - risk is a factor embedded in our everyday lives but do we really understand what it means, how it is quantified and how decisions are made? In six chapters Ben Ale explains the concepts, methods and procedures for risk analysis and in doing so provides an introductory understanding of risk perception, assessment and management. Aided by over seventy illustrations, the author casts light on the often overlooked basics of this fascinating field, making this an essential text for students at undergraduate and postgraduate level as well as policy and decision-making professionals. Developed from the Safety Science or Risk Science course taught at Delft University, this highly respected author has a lifetime of knowledge and experience in the study of risk.

• David Jonathan Brooks

Security is a multidimensional concept, with many meanings, practising domains, and heterogeneous occupations. Therefore, it is difficult to define security as a singular concept, although understanding may be achieved by its applied context in presenting a domicile body of knowledge. There have been studies that have presented a number of corporate security bodies of knowledge; however, there is still restricted consensus. From these past body of knowledge studies, and supported by multidimensional scaling knowledge mapping, a body of knowledge framework is put forward, integrating core and allied knowledge categories. The core knowledge categories include practise areas such as risk management, business continuity, personnel and physical security, and security technology. Nevertheless, corporate security also has interrelationships with criminology, facility management, safety, and law. Such a framework provides clear boundaries for the practising domain of corporate security, better reflects the security experts' view of their practising domain, allows directed tertiary pedagogy, and presents what could be considered the scholarly area of Security Science.

• Björn Hettne

The problems of development and security have historically formed distinct discourses. More recently, they have been inextricably linked both in discourse and in much policy, thus creating the so-called development—security nexus that pervades much of today's international development assistance. The empirical basis for attention to this nexus has been quite obvious given the many humanitarian emergencies occurring in the 1990s. It is less clear what, in terms of linkages, went before and what will come after. This article discusses the putative nexus in different historical geopolitical contexts, probing into its origins and speculating about the shape it may take in the future. It consists of three parts. The first deals with conceptual issues and the overall theoretical framework. The second describes four historical discourses, consecutively prevalent from about 1750 to 1980. The third concerns the current discourse on globalization and its possible future shape: global development.

There are currently over 10,000 security companies in the United States, employing 1.8 million guards. Security guards already outnumber police by almost three to one, and this discrepancy is expected to continue to grow. Security guards perform many of the same functions as police officers, and may even carry weapons, but to what extent do states regulate the private security industry?This paper compares the change in state regulation of private security, in particular the requirements for hiring and training security officers. The provisions of the states as of 1982 and 1998 are compared and evaluated. We are interested in determining what threshold requirements the states have seen fit to establish for entry into the security industry, and whether these threshold requirements provide adequate protection for the public.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235688059_Security_Science_The_Theory_and_Practice_of_Security

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